In The Big Sleep (1946, Howard Hawks, director, Christian Nyby, editor) the viewer physically "travels with” Marlowe throughout the film – he is in every scene and we have little access to information not available to him or to events that he does not participate in. Most scenes in the film are structured the same way: the camera follows Marlowe as he enters a location, he has an encounter with one or more characters, and then the camera follows Marlowe as he exits. (Figures 1-4 below)
(Figs 1-4)
The opening and closing shots reinforce the principle that the viewer is traveling with Marlowe. This predisposes us to adopt Marlowe's emotional and conceptual attitudes. Our knowledge of the other characters is restricted to how they reveal themselves in their interactions with Marlowe. Moreover, the portraits of other characters are limited by their importance for Marlowe and his moral vision.
The Big Sleep generally uses the shot counter-shot structure (SCS) to depict Marlowe’s interactions with other characters. (See Figs. 2-3 above.) A standard structure used in films from the classic age of Hollywood filmmaking through contemporary filmmaking, the shot counter-shot sequence is typically used to portray dialog scenes. Also typically, the SCS exchange is established, broken, and re-established through the course of the exchange. The break in the pattern generally indicates a shift in the tone of the conversation or in the significance of the discussion for one or both characters. As the exchange reestablishes itself on a new plane and the relationship changes in some way, another pattern is established; it is clear that the shift by one person in the encounter is significant for both characters.
The shot counter-shot structure is used in this film to show each scene as both an "objectively" depicted social encounter and a way for us to have access to Marlowe's perspective and judgment. To create a sense of objectivity and neutrality, Hawks favors eye-level camera placement, a slight oblique angle for each party, either singles or over-the-shoulder shots, a similar distance to the camera, and a clear repetition of pairs of shot compositions. Generally, if the shot is repositioned, the counter-shot will be adjusted to compensate for the change. The film thus tactfully avoids tipping the balance too far in Marlowe's favor and also refrains from emphasizing Marlowe's partiality. On the other hand, the reaction shot holds a privileged position in The Big Sleep’s SCS scenes because it gives us access to Marlowe’s thoughts and emotional life.
Let’s take a look at an early scene to see how the shot counter-shot form is used to create access to Marlowe's perspective while maintaining the sense that we’re looking at the scene from outside any one character’s perspective. This will be a close analysis; we provide some frames from the DVD, but encourage you to have the DVD handy so you can have a look for yourself.
In this scene, Marlowe has his only encounter with General Sternwood, the elderly gentleman who hired Marlowe to investigate an act of blackmail against Carmen, one
of his daughters. The entire scene between Marlowe and General Sternwood proceeds by establishing and then changing patterns of the shot counter-shot form during their long conversation.
In his initial monologue, General Sternwood talks about himself, his milieu, and his problems, but interestingly, through the strategic placement of reaction shots, we also learn something about Marlowe.
There are three reaction shots of Marlowe in this opening sequence: when the General tells Marlowe he may smoke, when he describes the effects of his illness (Marlowe pulls his ear lobe, a gesture indicating his mental involvement), and when he talks of the orchid as a “nasty thing” (“their perfume has the rotten sweetness of corruption” he says as Marlowe drinks brandy) – a progression from physical to moral decay. (Figs. 5-7) The placement of reaction shots suggests that the General's descriptions are significant for Marlowe. They forecast his passionate response to the morally depraved characters in the film.
Figs 5-7
The General’s reaction shot to Marlowe drinking brandy breaks the pattern and starts another SCS sequence; the camera has moved closer. (Figs. 8-9) The General’s reaction shot is quite dramatic, giving us a hint that he (and as we’ll see, Marlowe) are attracted and repelled by the corrupt world in which they operate. As Sternwood says later, “I enjoyed your brandy as much as you did, Mr. Marlowe.” The camera has moved closer, reflecting a closer level of intimacy between the two men.
Figs 8-9
Another SCS sequence is established (the camera moves to a closer MS of each man) when Marlowe and the General begin to talk about Sternwood’s two daughters. The change occurs when we cut to Marlowe as he says what he’s heard about them: “They’re both pretty (Fig. 10), and both pretty wild” (Fig. 11).
Figs 10-11
Later the two men talk about Sean Reagan, a man respected by both of them who has recently disappeared. The conversation directly concerns Sternwood's feelings, but the composition of the sequence also tells us about Marlowe.
This sequence begins by cutting back to a longer shot in which some exposition about Reagan is provided (Fig. 12) Since it conveys less emotionally charged material than the surrounding shots, the change of camera distance is appropriate. It’s also important for easing the intensity, so the return to the medium close shot (Fig. 13) has more impact. Remember, in order to heighten the emotion of a moment, it’s often a good idea to first ease the tension. (It’s similar to music, where musicians lower the volume at the start of a crescendo for maximum effect.)
Figs 12-13
The next shift is a major one: The composition changes as Marlowe walks over to the bar for a second drink. A long shot of Marlowe walking is followed by a new set-up of medium shot singles of the two men. This new SCS sequence continues to build the men's relationship as the General keeps discussing Reagan. (Figs. 14-16)
Figs 14-16
This sequence recalls the opening, with shots of the General speaking
and Marlowe reacting. The theme here is “acting by proxy” – Marlowe and
Reagan both do things that Sternwood can no longer do. This sequence
again suggests that Sternwood's discussion has personal resonance for
Marlowe. This is especially evident in the reaction shot of Marlowe as
the General says of Reagan, “He was my son, almost.” (Similar to Fig.
15.) It is no accident that at key moments we hear the General and see
Marlowe; the General talks of Reagan's doing things (sitting with him,
“sweating like a pig”) while we witness Marlowe doing what Reagan had
done.
We are thus subtly guided throughout this scene to begin to understand Marlowe's point of view. One of the main, if not the main, themes of the film is “indulging in vices by proxy.” The core of Marlowe’s belief system is his disdain for this trait; he hates Mars and Canino, the two primary villains in the film, because they do other people’s dirty work (Canino) or order others to do their own dirty work (Mars). On the other hand, Marlowe respects Jones, a petty criminal, for his personal code of honor, for his protection of his girlfriend Agnes, and for his refusal to get involved in other people’s business. (It is of course ironic that Marlowe earns his living doing other people’s business; it is the reason he needs to constantly play out this dilemma.)
So, we see that the shot counter-shot structure can be used to focus on a character's perspective during an exchange that is presented “from the outside.” Reaction shots are used to bring out the emotions/thoughts of a character, simultaneously placing actions/other characters within that person’s perspective. An event obviously meaningful to one character in the narrative (in this scene, the General) can also be revealed as significant for the character privileged through the use of reaction shots (both the General and Marlowe).
Copyright 2008, Ellen Feldman
Film frames provided courtesy of Warner Home Video.